Abstract

The purpose of this review is to provide a review of the grey literature on this topic, while placing this in the context of what was found in a previous study (Culver & Sharkh, 2020) where a total of 1542 academic records were considered in a scoping review. Following a double screening process and final selection, 45 records were analyzed for the academic literature review. The grey literature review incorporated a simplistic version of data collection that combined identifying relevant records, record selection, and charting the data all into one step. A smaller total of 20 records were analyzed. In both studies, quantitative (frequencies and percentages of categories) and qualitative statistics (presence of dominant themes) were developed, then input into a table for further summarizing. Present in both the academic and grey literature were concepts regarding experiences and rates of participation. Both of these concepts were found to be heavily impacted by the perpetuation of stereotypes through channels such as the media as well as able-bodied and male athletes, coaches, and/or management. Evident solely in the academic literature were concepts regarding: existing notions of sport, constructing identities, intersections with media, recreational research, and strategies to improve involvement and participation. The review of the grey literature supported several of these findings, and included records, for example, related to certain policies and initiatives to increase the rates of participation for women with a disability in recreational sport. Overall, we can conclude there is an important gap in the academic and grey literature concerning the intersection of gender and disability in sport.

Executive Summary

Lead: Diane M Culver

Student Lead: Majidullah Shaikh Research Assistant: Nathan Garcia

This literature review on disability sport was conducted for the Gender+ Equity in Sport in Canada Research Hub to serve as a compliment to the academic literature scoping review.

The review took place from January to March, 2021. Please see Appendix A for a summary of the key findings of the academic literature review.

Introduction

As per Culver & Shaihk (2020), we defined disability sport as “sport played in contexts mostly or entirely exclusive to disabled people (with some exceptions)... [including contexts ranging from] recreational to elite levels, para- and Paralympic competition contexts, local to national level contexts, and Special Olympics” (p. 5). Gender was similarly inclusively defined whereby multiple gender identities were included. The purpose of this part of the review was to synthesize existing grey literature on gender+ equity in disability sport, as a supplement to the scoping review of the academic literature on this topic. Although both reviews were expanded to an international scope, the reviews were launched in response to a goal set out for Canada by Kirsty Duncan, the Minister of Science and Sport. This goal was to achieve gender+ equity in sport at all levels by the year 2035.

Commensurate with this goal, the rationale behind these reviews was to pull together all the information out there about gender+ equity and disability sport including the intersection of these concepts to inform our understanding of this matter. The development of our understanding of gender+ equity and disability sport is one important step in achieving this national goal. The results of these reviews will drive future research in the hopes of leading to solutions.

Research Question

The research team for academic review defined the following as the research question: “What are the current and historical issues of gender equity that can be understood from academic literature that has been published on gender topics in disability sport contexts?” To supplement these findings, the secondary research question for the current study aimed to investigate the exact same type of content within the grey literature.

Brief Summary of the Academic Review Process

For the academic scoping review, 45 records were selected for data extraction. Descriptive statistics helped to understand the frequencies and percentages of the data across the categories, and qualitative descriptive analyses were used to group data inductively into themes that can help address the research question.

The following is the search strategy used.

Grey Literature Review Process

Identifying the research question

Based on the conclusions of Culver and Shaikh's Gender Equity in Disability Sport: A Rapid Scoping Review of Literature, a focus gender+ equity in disability sport, specifically in Canada would produce an insufficient amount of information. That said, a decision was made to make the same adjustments (as in the academic literature search) of opening up the literature to include any gender topic discussion and international research. Given the academic literature had already been reviewed, the research question was modified to express the need to review the grey literature. The final research question goes as follows: “What are the current and historical issues of gender+ equity that can be understood from grey literature that has been published on gender+ topics in disability sport contexts?”

Data collection

Given the fact that the grey literature is of interest for this review, the only database utilized was Google. A single search combination was input into Google, composed of the following terms in this exact order: “disability”, “gender”, “equity”, and “sports.” Records were included if they presented any discussion of disability or genderwithin a sports context. Information was charted in Google Sheets. The information documented from each record included weblink, author/organization, publication year, title, and a short description. A more in-depth summary of each record was filed in a Google Document. To expand the search, the terms “provincial”, “national”, and “international” were all individually added to the beginning of the initial search pattern. Each search pattern was put to a halt once two consecutive search results did not meet the inclusion criteria. A total of 20 records were included in this study of the grey literature.

Collating, summarizing, and reporting results

Both quantitative and qualitative results are presented. Quantitatively, frequencies and percentages across categories of scope, level, contexts, gender, and focus within sport context. Qualitatively, the detailed summaries of each record were scanned for the presence of dominant themes outlined in Culver and Shaikh's GenderEquity in Disability Sport: A Rapid Scoping Review of Literature.

Results

Quantitative

By way of context, the following quantitative data for the academic literature have been directly extracted from Culver and Shaikh’s Gender Equity in Disability Sport: A Rapid ScopingReview of Literature.

Academic Review Statistics

Countries

- USA (12 records; 26.66%)

International (7 records; 15.56%)
Canada (4 records; 8.88%)
Sweden (4 records; 8.88%)
United Kingdom (4 records; 8.88%)
Europe (2 records, 2.22%)
Australia, Brazil, Cuba, Denmark, France, Germany, Iran, Malaysia, Norway, Singapore, Turkey (1 record each 2.22%)

Contexts

Elite (15 records; 33.33%)
Paralympic (12 records; 26.67%)
Recreational (7 records; 15.56%)
Cross-section (4 records; 8.88%)
Unspecified or inapplicable (4 records; 8.88%)
Education (2 records; 4.00%)

Genders

Women and girls only (26 records; 57.78%)
Women and men (14 records; 31.11%)
Men and boys only (4 records; 8.88%)
Unspecified or inapplicable (2 records, 4.44%)

Research approaches

Qualitative (28 records; 62.22%)
Quantitative (7 records; 15.56%)
Traditional reviews or insight papers (7 records; 15.56%)
Mixed methods (1 records; 2.22%)

Grey Literature Statistics

Scope level

National (8 records; 40%)
International (6 records; 30%)
Provincial (6 records; 30%)

Contexts

Cross-Section (8 records; 40%)
Recreation (7 records; 35%)
Paralympic (3 records; 15%)
Education (2 records; 10%)

Genders

Women and men (15 records; 75%)
Women and girls (5 records; 25%)

Focus

Disability (13 records; 65%)
Gender (4 records; 20% )
Gender and disability (3 records; 15%)

Qualitative Dominant Themes Intersecting Gender, Disability, and Sport

The following sub-headings summarize the qualitative findings outlined by Culver and Shaikh’s Gender Equity in Disability Sport: A Rapid Scoping Review of Literature. Note that the sub-heading “Evident in both forms of literature” combines ideas from the academic as well as the grey literature reviews.

Present solely in the academic literature

Existing notions of sport

Although sport could be used as a channel to drive positive outcomes such as the creation of a sense of community, it could also be used to facilitate separation between groups. Rooted in sports is hegemonic masculinity which in this context places a heightened profile for individuals who possess stereotypically masculine traits. As a result, women and people with disabilities are not equally encouraged to engage in sports. Furthermore, when people with disabilities display ability despite their impairments, they are viewed as innate technological beings rather than simply athletes. This phenomena is called cyborgification.

Constructing identities

Due to the existing notions of sport outlined above, disabled female athletes navigate these phenomena by classifying themselves somewhere in the middle of thespectrum of man and woman. In some cases, these individuals define themselves by the sport they play, leaving out the binary options of male or female. In other cases, some of these individuals seek to establish themselves as more masculine in order tocreate a better sense of belonging. Conversely, disabled female athletes may exhibit more masculine tendencies exclusively in game while maintaining their true femininity outside of play.

When we look at the portrayal of male athletes with a disability, the construction of identity often revolves around parading masculinity. Frequently this is done by ostracizing female athletes with disabilities and putting male dominance on display through heteronormative, sex- related prowess.

Intersections with media

Although the prevalence of media coverage for disability sports has evidently increased and efforts have been made to promote gender equity through media, recentstudies highlight the continuing presence of imbalances.

Studies found that even though female athletes with a disability may be written about as much as their male counterparts, they are portrayed in visual forms much less. The lack of depiction of these athletes results in the media characterizing these athletes as genderless. However, when the gender is highlighted through the media, these female athletes are often over-sexualized. While male athletes with a disability may be pictured in their sport or captured in an action pose, female athletes with a disability are found in unrelated settings in revealing clothing or sometimes even naked.

Recreational research

Very minimal research has been devoted to recreational or educational contexts. However, the existing literature points to some positive outcomes from grassroots level sport participation. After school sport intervention studies found that positive relationships were formed between able-bodied and disabled individuals as well as with coaches. As a result, non-organized play as seen during recess improved between these students. One of the

driving factors for these younger generations engaging in recreational play in the first place is the emergence of elite female athletes with a disability serving as role models.

Strategies to increase involvement and participation

Regardless if an individual is living with an impairment or not, the same motor patterns are active during a particular sport between men and women. That said, providing equal access to technology will promote involvement and participation. To further this initiative, reverse integration should be more often implemented into sport. This can be accomplished by providing the means for both disabled and abled-bodied athletes to collaboratively engage in sports.

Evident in both forms of literature

Rates of participation

When looking at the academic literature, records that address levels of participation between genders in disability sport contexts seem to be almost non- existent. However, one single study did analyze this gender comparison in deaf and hard of hearing sports specifically. They found that only 30% of women and girls in this population participate in sports at any level, most of whom were in the 21-30 years old range. An even smaller percentage of women and girls comprise the leadership roles of this disability sport, at a mere 10%. This trend is consistent with the grey literature, as particularly seen at the national level for all sport participation (i.e., not uniquely disability sport). Studies carried out by the Canadian government statistically highlight the improvement in participation levels for women and girls at the recreational level for sport. However, these participation levels still fall significantly short in comparison to men and boys. Furthermore, these records indicate that these low participation levels for women and girls taper off even more for certain groups including individuals with disabilities (Government of Canada, 2019). It is unfortunate that Canada is still faced with these gender inequities in disability sport to this day considering how long participation has been a focus. One record within the grey literature outlined the early development of disability sport. The first stage was to utilize sport as a means of rehab for soldiers who sustained injuries during World War II. Not long after, the second stage focused in on raising

participation levels across all demographics (Howe, P., 2013). As mentioned above, progress has been made since then, but there is much work to go.

Experiences of participation

Female athletes with a disability can positively be influenced by all that sports have to offer. First, the team environment creates a sense of camaraderie with other athletes, which helps participants find their own identity as a person, leading to increased self-esteem. Second, components of the team environment such as fellow athletes, supporters, coaches, and other members of staff may serve as a great social support system. In addition, negative ableist assumptions about disability, masculinity, and ability, can be combated by increased disabled sport participation by women and girls. Evidence within the academic literature supports the benefits outlined above, however, within the grey literature lie current mechanisms that have been put in place to achieve these healthy outcomes of participation. Many examples of this were seen on organization pages that operate at the provincial level here in Canada. ViaSport and SportNorth are organizations that regulate recreational sport in British Columbia and the Northwest Territories respectively. Participation levels across all demographics are ensured to be equitable by implementing and enforcing certain policies that particularly act in the interest of neglected groups in the sport world, including female athletes with a disability (ViaSport British Columbia, 2021; SportNorth Federation, 2018). Parasport Ontario which oversees disability sport in Ontario positively influences the experience of participation through the use of several effective programs. First, their website provides a section containing a library of the different disability sports offered in the province. For each sport, all the necessary information is provided for participants to easily get involved. While not exclusively for women and girls, the “Try Me Sessions” program allows beginners to engage in an introductory session for variety of different disability sports. This organization also possesses adaptive equipment that can be rented, therefore reducing the extra costs of participation in disability sports that require expensive equipment (ParasportOntario, 2020).

On a less positive note, there are negative outcomes reported for female athletes with a disability. At the elite level, there have been documented instances in which these athletes were spoken to in a manner that faulted them for being female or disabled. Worse is the fact these remarks were

being made by their very own coaching staff. The degrading of these athletes does not stop here, as many of these athletes have also reported the reinforcement of gender stereotypes through disability sport. In most cases, the physiological advantages men may have over women are neutralized in disability sport. Despite this, female athletes who participate in disability sport are often penalized for behavioural or cognitive traits common for women and girls, such as having a frequency to be chatty.

Women and girls who embody these characteristics are then labelled as rebellious to sport. In mixed gender contexts, women are often relegated to roles that are seen as less technical, and this without justification. With all these reported shortcomings in the female disability sport experience, it is to no surprise that the participation levels are so low. These downfalls should be addressed for immediate action to change.

Conclusions

This report of the grey literature around gender and its interaction with disability sport, at all levels of people involved in sport, mostly supported the key findings of the associated scoping review of the academic literature (Culver & Shaikh, 2020). Not all topics covered in the academic literature were found in the grey literature. Intersectionality and non-binary gender identities and disability sport were absent in both forms of literature, pointing to a big gap. The grey literature provides example of best practices/programs implemented by different organizations. Some of these are in the recreational sport context, a context no at all well covered in the academic literature. As a supplement to the other important gaps in the academic literature related to gender and disability sport research (e.g., participation and participation rates), moving forward, sport organizations could contribute important data by gathering more data on their programs.

Such data should include quantitative metrics related to participation (e.g., representation, recruitment, retention), as well as qualitative data about the experiences of participants (e.g., barriers faced, pathways, psychological safety, supports). These data are essential to support change that is based on the evidence of both the academic and grey literature. Such evidence can provide a base for building a research strategy for gender+ and disability sport. Future research should also include more collaborative approaches whereby academics and sport organisations work together on action type research projects that involve those Canadians directly involved, such as disability sport participants and others who can impact their sport experience, especially at the community sport level.

Appendix A

Key Findings of the Scoping review of the Academic Literature

Ableist and masculinity notions are intertwined into disability sport, and shape the experiences of disabled athletes (female and male)
Disabled athletes are often challenged with how to construct their identities, in integrating masculinity, femininity, and battling being seen as an ungendered athlete, while also battling the notion that their gender should matter before their identity as athletes first.
Media perpetuates the notions of masculinity and ability in their representations of female disabled athletes
Beyond masculinity and ability, there also exists the influence of cultural and religious norms – which may be important to explore in Canadian multicultural contexts

Top Research Gaps

There is little research to draw on in understanding gender equity in disability sport that is situated in Canada.
Low attention on recreational and school contexts, and/or children and youth.
There is a gap in understanding participation rates in disability sport by gender across levels of involvement (e.g., organizational, coaching, athletic, etc.) and across context (e.g., elite, Paralympic, recreational, school, etc.), from a Canadian (and even International) perspective.
~75% of research in disability sport and gender does not employ any theory or conceptual framing.
~45% of research in disability sport and gender does not explicitly address epistemological positioning and/or methodological approaches.
All the records returned in this review involved either men (male) or women (female) identities, with no records concerning any other identified gender identities.
Much of the research is situated in elite and Paralympic contexts, with less focus on recreational, school, and developmental contexts for disability sport.

Application: Priority Questions or Next Steps

Call for more research in gender equity in the Canadian disability context.
Explore recreational and schools as places of opportunity to promote gender participation.
Call for more collaborative action research approaches to tackle research questions most relevant to disabled people and supporting their empowerment.
Explore leveraging technology for promoting gender equity in this context.
Explore the use of reverse integration contexts to promote inclusion.

Full Literature Reviews (English)